Buffering the Effects of Students’ Perceived Task Difficulty on Cognitive Engagement in EFL Writing Classrooms: The Role of Foreign Language Enjoyment and Growth Mindset
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.1505.09Keywords:
perceived task difficulty, cognitive engagement, foreign language enjoyment, mindsetAbstract
Submitted Currently, research on second language acquisition (SLA) and psychology of language learning has conceived foreign language learning as a complex system of beliefs, thoughts, emotions, and actions that contribute immensely to shape students’ learning experiences. The significance of such research lies in the fact that they provide a holistic perspective of FL learning by considering the multiple and interrelated interactions of beliefs, emotional and cognitive factors, rather than examining any single variable in isolation. Therefore, this study seeks to provide such insights by examining the interaction between perception of task difficulty and cognitive engagement in an EFL writing classroom, taking into consideration the possible effects of foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and mindset on such relationship. Data were collected from 218 Saudi undergraduate students using a questionnaire. Results revealed that: a) students’ perception of task difficulty is linked to their cognitive engagement; b) FLE acts as a buffer against the negative effects of difficult EFL writing tasks on students’ cognitive engagement; c) growth mindset has no moderating role in the relationship between perceived difficulty and cognitive engagement.
References
Al-Asmari, A. (2013). Investigation of writing strategies, writing apprehension, and writing achievement among Saudi EFL-Major students. International Education Studies, 6(11), 130-143. doi:10.5539/IES.V6N11P130
Al-Hoorie, A. H., & Hiver, P. (2021, March). The role of task engagement and persistence in learner’s written task performance [Paper presentation]. The American Association for Applied Linguistics (AAAL) Virtual Conference [Slides].
Al-Khairy, M. H. (2013). English as a foreign language learning demotivational factors as perceived by Saudi undergraduates. European Scientific Journal, 9(32). https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2013.v9n32p%p
Alharbi, B. (2022). Saudi English for specific purpose students’ attitudes toward the learning of English language: An investigative study [Brief Research Report]. Frontiers in Education, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.998531
Alrabai, F. (2022). The role of mixed emotions in language learning and teaching: A positive psychology teacher intervention. System, 102821. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102821
Alrabai, F., & Alamer, A. (2022). The role of learner character strengths and classroom emotions in L2 resilience. Frontiers in Psychology, 6419. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.956216
Almuhailib, B. (2016). Professors' and students' perceptions towards English writing challenges at Qassim University of Saudi Arabia [Unpublished doctoral master’s thesis]. State University of New York. Retrieved February 7, 2022 from http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12648/517.
Alsehibany, R. A. (2021). EFL Saudi Student's attitudes toward peer feedback activities in a writing class. PSU Research Review, 14(1). doi:10.1108/PRR-01-2021-0004
Alshammari, S. (2020). "Writing to learn or learning to write". A critical review of "English as a foreign language" (EFL) teaching practices in writing in Saudi universities. Research in Education and Learning Innovation Archives, (24), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.7203/realia.24.15867
Awwad, A. (2019). L2 learners' and professionals' perceptions of cognitive task complexity: Towards developing an index of task difficulty. Journal of Asia TEFL, 16(2), 468. http://dx.doi.org/10.18823/asiatefl.2019.16.2.2.468
Balachandran, A. (2018). Perspectives and Practices Regarding Written Corrective Feedback in Swedish Context: A Case Study. (Unpublished Master’s Thesis). Sweden. urn:nbn:se:su:diva-153093
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Macmillan.
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.51.6.1173
Bond, M., Buntins, K., Bedenlier, S., Zawacki-Richter, O., & Kerres, M. (2020). Mapping research in student engagement and educational technology in higher education: A systematic evidence map. International journal of educational technology in higher education, 17(1), 1-30.doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-019-0176-8
Botes, E., Dewaele, J. M., & Greiff, S. (2021). The development and validation of the short form of the foreign language enjoyment scale. The Modern Language Journal, 105(4), 858-876. doi:10.31234/osf.io/984hb
Botes, E., Dewaele, J. M., Greiff, S., & Goetz, T. (2023). Can personality predict foreign language classroom emotions? The devil’s in the detail. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263123000153
Brunstein, J. C., & Schmitt, C. H. (2010). “Assessing individual differences in achievement motivation with the implicit association test: predictive validity of a chronometric measure of the self-concept ‘Me = Successful’,” in Implicit Motives eds O. C. Schultheiss and J. C. Brunstein (New York, NY: Oxford University Press), 151–185. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195335156.003.0006
Burmeister, A., Alterman, V., Fasbender, U., & Wang, M. (2022). Too much to know? The cognitive demands of daily knowledge seeking and the buffering role of coworker contact quality. Journal of Applied Psychology, 107(8), 1303. doi:10.1037/apl0000925
Cho, M. (2019). The effects of prompts on L2 writing performance and engagement. Foreign Language Annals, 52(3), 576-594. doi:10.1111/flan.12411
Christenson, S. L, Amy L. R., & Chaty, W. (Eds.). (2012). Handbook of Research on Students Engagement. USA: Springer Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7
Dewaele, J.-M., & Alfawzan, M. (2018). Does the effect of enjoyment outweigh that of anxiety in foreign language performance? Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 8, 21–45. doi:10.14746/ssllt.2018.8.1.2
Dewaele, J. M., Botes, E., & Greiff, S. (2022). Sources and effects of foreign language enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom: A structural equation modeling approach. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263122000328
Dewaele, J. M., & Dewaele, L. (2020). Are foreign language learners' enjoyment and anxiety specific to the teacher? An investigation into the dynamics of learners' classroom emotions. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 10(1), 45-65. doi:10.14746/ssllt.2020.10.1.3
Dewaele, J. M., & Proietti Ergün, A. L. (2020). How different are the relations between enjoyment, anxiety, attitudes/motivation and course marks in pupils’ Italian and English as foreign languages?. Journal of the European Second Language Association, 4(1), 45-57. https://doi.org/10.22599/jesla.65
Dewaele, J.-M., & Li, C. (2020). Emotions in second language acquisition: A critical review and research agenda. Foreign Language World, 1, 34–49. Retrieved January 20, 2022 from https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/id/eprint/32797
Dewaele, J.-M., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2014). The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 4, 237–274. doi: 10.14746/ssllt.2014.4.2.5
Dewaele, J. M., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2019). The predictive power of multicultural personality traits, learner and teacher variables on foreign language enjoyment and anxiety. In Evidence-based second language pedagogy (pp. 263-286). Routledge. doi: 10.4324/9781351190558-12
Dewaele, J.-M., Witney, J., Saito, K., & Dewaele, L. (2018). Foreign language enjoyment and anxiety: The effect of teacher and learner variables. Language teaching research, 22(6), 676-697. doi:10.1177/1362168817692161
Dweck, C. (2015). Carol Dweck revisits the growth mindset. Education Week, 35(5), 20-24. Retrieved January 19, 2022 from https://www.edweek.org/leadership/opinion-carol-dweck-revisits-the-growth-mindset/2015/09
Efklides, A. (2011). Interactions of metacognition with motivation and affect in self-regulated learning: The MASRL model. Educational psychologist, 46(1), 6-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2011.538645
Fathi, J., & Mohammaddokht, F. (2021). Foreign Language Enjoyment and Anxiety as the Correlates of the Ideal L2 Self in the English as a Foreign Language Context. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 790648.https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790648
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The Role of Positive Emotions in Positive Psychology: The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218
Fulmer, S. M., & Frijters, J. C. (2011). Motivation during an excessively challenging reading task: The buffering role of relative topic interest. The Journal of Experimental Education, 79(2), 185-208. doi:10.1080/00220973.2010.481503
Jiang, Y., & Dewaele, J. M. (2019). How unique is the foreign language classroom enjoyment and anxiety of Chinese EFL learners?. System, 82, 13-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.02.017
Hiver, P. (2022). Engaging the learner: Linking teaching practice to learners’ engagement and development. In A.H. Al-Hoorie & F. Szabó (Eds.), Researching language learning motivation: A concise guide (pp. 51-60). https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350166912.ch-5
Hiver, P., Al-Hoorie, A. H., Vitta, J. P., & Wu, J. (2021). Engagement in language learning: A systematic review of 20 years of research methods and definitions. Language Teaching Research, 13, 1-30. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211001289
Hiver, P., Al-Hoorie, A. H., & Mercer, S. (2020a). Student engagement in the language classroom. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Hiver, P., Zhou, S. A., Tahmouresi, S., Sang, Y., & Papi, M. (2020b). Why stories matter: Exploring learner engagement and metacognition through narratives of the L2 learning experience. System, 91(1), 102260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102260
Hosseini, H., Fathi, J., Derakhshesh, A., & Mehraein, S. (2022). A Model of Classroom Social Climate, Foreign Language Enjoyment, and Student Engagement Among EFL Learners. Frontiers in Psychology, 4847. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.933842
Javadi-Safa, A. (2018). A brief overview of key issues in second language writing teaching and research. International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies, 6(2), 12-25. doi:10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.6n.2p.15
Khadawardi, H. A. (2022). Saudi Learners' perceptions of academic writing challenges and general attitude towards writing in English. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 13(3), 645-658. https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.1303.21
Khajavy, G. H., Pourtahmasb, F., & Li, C. (2022). Examining the domain-specificity of language mindset: a case of L2 reading comprehension. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 16(3), 208-220. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2021.1956936
Kruk, M., Pawlak, M., & Zawodniak, J. (2021). Another look at boredom in language instruction: The role of the predictable and the unexpected. Studies in second language learning and teaching, 11(1), 15-40. doi:10.14746/ssllt.2021.11.1.2
Lee, J. S., Yeung, N. M., & Osburn, M. B. (2022). Foreign Language Enjoyment as a mediator between Informal Digital Learning of English and willingness to communicate: a sample of Hong Kong EFL secondary students. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2022.2112587
Li, C., Huang, J., & Li, B. (2021). The predictive effects of classroom environment and trait emotional intelligence on foreign language enjoyment and anxiety. System, 96, 102393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102393
Li, W., Lee, A., & Solmon, M. (2007). The role of perceptions of task difficulty in relation to self-perceptions of ability, intrinsic value, attainment value, and performance. European Physical Education Review, 13(3), 301-318. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X07081797
Li, C., & Wei, L. (2022). Anxiety, enjoyment, and boredom in language learning amongst junior secondary students in rural China: How do they contribute to L2 achievement?. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 1-16. doi:10.1017/S0272263122000031
Lou, N. M., Chaffee, K. E., & Noels, K. A. (2022). Growth, fixed, and mixed mindsets: Mindset system profiles in foreign language learners and their role in engagement and achievement. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 44(3), 607-632. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263121000401
Lou, N. M., & Noels, K. A. (2017). Measuring language mindsets and modeling their relations with goal orientations and emotional and behavioral responses in failure situations. The Modern Language Journal, 101(1), 214-243.https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12380
MacIntyre, P., & Gregersen, T. (2012). Emotions that facilitate language learning: The positive-broadening power of the imagination. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 2(2). doi:10.14746/ssllt.2012.2.2.4
Malmberg, L. E., Walls, T. A., Martin, A. J., Little, T. D., & Lim, W. H. (2013). Primary school students' learning experiences of, and self-beliefs about competence, effort, and difficulty: Random effects models. Learning and individual differences, 28, 54-65.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.09.007
Naghdipour, B. (2021). English writing pedagogy at the crossroads: The case of Oman. Journal of Second Language Writing, 52, 100815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2021.100815
Nakamura, S., Darasawang, P., & Reinders, H. (2021). The antecedents of boredom in L2 classroom learning. System, 98, 102469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102469
Namaziandost, E., Esfahani, F. R., & Ahmadi, S. (2019). Varying levels of difficulty in L2 reading materials in the EFL classroom: Impact on comprehension and motivation. Cogent Education, 6(1), 1615740. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1615740
Nawaz, S., Srivastava, N., Yu, J.H., Baker, R.S., Kennedy, G., Bailey, J. (2020). Analysis of task difficulty sequences in a simulation-based POE environment. In: I. Bittencourt, M. Cukurova, K. Muldner, R. Luckin, & E. Millán (Eds.), Artificial Intelligence in Education. AIED 2020. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 12163. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52237-7_34
Nunan, D., & Keobke, K. (1995). Task Difficulty from the Learner's Perspective: Perceptions and Reality. Hong Kong papers in linguistics and language teaching, 18, 1-12.
Nuutila, K., Tapola, A., Tuominen, H., Molnár, G., & Niemivirta, M. (2021). Mutual relationships between the levels of and changes in interest, self-efficacy, and perceived difficulty during task engagement. Learning and Individual Differences, 92, 102090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102090
Oishi, T. (2015). Applying brainstorming techniques to EFL classroom. NII Electronic Library Service, 121-127. Retrieved March 2, 2022 from http://id.nii.ac.jp/1490/00000798/.
Patall, E. A., Hooper, S., Vasquez, A. C., Pituch, K. A., & Steingut, R. R. (2018). Science class is too hard: Perceived difficulty, disengagement, and the role of teacher autonomy support from a daily diary perspective. Learning and Instruction, 58, 220-231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.07.004
Pawlak, M., Kruk, M., Zawodniak, J., & Pasikowski, S. (2020). Investigating factors responsible for boredom in English classes: The case of advanced learners. System, 91, 102259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102259
Pekrun, R. (2006). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: Assumptions, corollaries, and implications for educational research and practice. Educational psychology review, 18(4), 315-341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-006-9029-9
Pietarinen, J., Soini, T., & Pyhältö, K. (2014). Students’ emotional and cognitive engagement as the determinants of well-being and achievement in school. International Journal of Educational Research, 67, 40-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2014.05.001
Quinto, E. J. M., Castillo, J. C. D., & Lucero, R. D. (2021). Influence of Student Engagement on L2 Writing of Filipino ESL Students: The Moderating Role of Academic Mindsets. Korean Journal of English Language and Linguistics, 21, 856-869. doi:10.15738/kjell.21.202109.856
Révész, A., Michel, M., & Gilabert, R. (2016). Measuring cognitive task demands using dual-task methodology, subjective self-ratings, and expert judgments: A validation study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38(4), 703-737. doi:10.1017/S0272263115000339
Robinson, P. (2011). Task‐based language learning: A review of issues. Language learning, 61, 1-36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2011.00641.x
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. New York: Guilford. https://doi.org/10.1521/978.14625/28806
Scasserra, D. (2008). The influence of perceived task difficulty on task performance. Theses and Dissertations. 756. Retrieved March 15, 2022 from https://rdw.rowan.edu/etd/756
Shernoff, D. J., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Schneider, B., & Shernoff, E. S. (2003). Student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. School Psychology Quarterly, 18. 158-176. 10.1521/scpq.18.2.158.21860
Sulis G., & Philp J. (2021). Exploring connections between classroom environment and engagement in the foreign language classroom. In Hiver P., Al-Hoorie A.H., Mercer S. (Eds.), Student engagement in the language classroom (pp. 101–129). Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781788923613-009
Sun, T., Wang, C., Lambert, R. G., & Liu, L. (2021). Relationship between second language English writing self-efficacy and achievement: A meta-regression analysis. Journal of Second Language Writing, 53, 100817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2021.100817
Tavakoli, P. (2009). Investigating task difficulty: Learners’ and teachers’ perceptions. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 19(1), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-4192.2009.00216.x
Tavakoli, P., & P. Skehan (2005). Strategic planning, task structure and performance testing. In R. Ellis (ed.), Planning and task performance in a second language. Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 239-277. https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.11.15tav
Teimouri, Y., Plonsky, L., & Tabandeh, F. (2022). L2 grit: Passion and perseverance for second-language learning. Language Teaching Research, 26(5), 893-918. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820921895
Tulis, M., & Fulmer, S. M. (2013). Students' motivational and emotional experiences and their relationship to persistence during academic challenge in mathematics and reading. Learning and Individual Differences, 27, 35–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.06.003
Wang, F., & Ye, Z. (2021). On the role of EFL/ESL teachers' emotion regulation in students' academic engagement. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 758860.https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.758860
Wang, M. T., & Eccles, J. S. (2012). Adolescent behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement trajectories in school and their differential relations to educational success. Journal of research on adolescence, 22(1), 31-39.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00753.x
Wang, H., Peng, A., & Patterson, M. M. (2021). The roles of class social climate, language mindset, and emotions in predicting willingness to communicate in a foreign language. System, 99, 102529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102529
Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 68-81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015
Zhang, W., Zhang, D., & Zhang, L. J. (2021). Metacognitive instruction for sustainable learning: Learners’ perceptions of task difficulty and use of metacognitive strategies in completing integrated speaking tasks. Sustainability, 13(11), 6275. doi:10.3390/su13116275
Zhou, Yu, S., Zheng, N., Y., Zhang, L., Cao, H., & Li, X. (2019). Evaluating student motivation and engagement in the Chinese EFL writing context. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 62, 129-141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2019.06.002
